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Call For Protection of All
Coral Reef, Seagrass
Thomas J. Goreau, Ph.D. The Global Coral Reef Alliance calls for immediate international agreements to protect all shallow water ecosystems in International Waters, especially coral reefs and seagrasses. Coral reef and seagrass ecosystems, among the most productive, biodiverse, and economically important marine ecosystems, are confined to shallow water (generally less than 100 m depth), because of their need for light. While almost all of them are found near coastlines of continents and islands, and therefore lie within national Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), coral reef, seagrass, and other shallow water ecosystems can also be found in the high seas on shallow submerged banks and seamounts. These ecosystems in international waters have no protection of any kind, nevertheless they are disproportionately important, and urgently need to be protected. Recently an international call to protect deep sea ecosystems and seamounts has been made to the United Nations and the Law of the Sea Conference by a group of marine scientists and conservationists coordinated by Matt Gianni of the Greenpeace Oceans campaign. Deep sea species are highly diverse, but are vulnerable because they are often extremely slow growing, and are increasingly being targeted by industrial fishing fleets as shallow water species are being fished out. We strongly support these important conservation efforts aimed at protecting deep sea fauna, but it is important to also focus on protection of shallow water ecosystems in the high seas. Like deep sea ecosystems they are totally unprotected from destructive fishing methods and over-harvesting, but they may be even more in peril because of several unique characteristics. 1) Shallow water ecosystems in the high seas are extremely rare and virtually all are very small areas, occupying only a very tiny fraction of the ocean surface. Economically desirable species confined to shallow waters are far more easily wiped out than those in the vast areas of deep sea bottom, thousands of times greater in extent, which are much harder to completely over-harvest. 2) Despite their small size these ecosystems are of incredible biological importance because they are the only stepping stones by which shallow water organisms can migrate across oceans and colonize new areas if climate changes. For example the spread of coral reef ecosystems across the tropical oceans after the last Ice Age ended could only have happened by migration across these unique areas from the small refuge areas in which reef organisms were able to survive during the coldest periods. 3) They are central to maintaining gene flow of shallow water species across oceans, maintaining the genetic identity of species and the genetic diversity which is essential for adaptation to changing environmental conditions, such as global climate change and pollution. Without them species would become genetically impoverished and far more vulnerable to extinction. New species might form due to isolation of formerly connected and inter-breeding populations. In addition these areas may contain rare endemic species that have lost the ability for long-range transport, whether as larvae, juveniles, or adults. 4) Shallow water ecosystems are essential nursery areas and refuges for coral reef and other shallow water fish species that may form part of economically important straddling stocks. 5) Shallow water seagrasses and reef areas are essential feeding habitats for many endangered species of turtles, and important breeding or calving grounds for endangered whales and dolphins. 6) These ecosystems are of global importance because they are highly productive and export large amounts of seagrass detritus to surrounding deep ocean sediments, acting as a sink for carbon dioxide and source of oxygen. 7) Shallow water ecosystems in International Waters are highly vulnerable because they are easily accessible and lines and trawling gear can be quickly lowered to them, making them much more profitable to exploit than deep sea ecosystems where it takes hours to raise and lower gear. 8) They are easily found because the most productive areas can be seen from boats, planes, or satellite images, and even the deeper ones where the bottom may not be visible from the surface may be easily located from changes in water color and wave patterns. 9) Shallow water ecosystems have much higher biomass than deep sea ecosystems, providing larger catches, and giving a strong incentive for overharvesting. For example the Saya de Malha Banks in the Indian Ocean has been extensively trawled in the past by industrial fishing fleets from the former Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and East Asia, and has become an important fishing area for Mauritius as fish stocks within the Mauritius EEZ have sharply declined. The Fish catches of Mauritius and Seychelles could collapse further if this important nursery area that restocks their EEZ zones is not protected. Matthew Gianni of the Greenpeace Oceans campaign notes: "the UN General Assembly resolution on Oceans and the Law of the sea incorporates recommendations on seamounts and biodiversity. The text of the UN resolution (which covers many issues) has been finalized and will be formally adopted by the General Assembly. In relation to seamounts and biodiversity, the resolution states (in paragraph 55) as follows: "The General Assembly...Encourages relevant international organizations including FAO, IHO, IMO, the Authority, UNEP, WMO, the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the United Nations Secretariat (Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea), with the assistance of regional and subregional fisheries organizations, to consider urgently ways to integrate and improve on a scientific basis the management of risks to marine biodiversity of seamounts and certain other underwater features within the framework of the Convention". The resolution (in paragraphs 60 and 61) also sets the stage for carrying this issue forward at the next meeting of the UN GA's Informal Consultative Process on oceans which will take place 2-6 June 2003 in New York. The first of the two items on the agenda for the meeting is "protecting vulnerable marine ecosystems". This meeting will then be in a position to make a recommendation for further action by the UN General Assembly in 2003. So, a process within the UN system has begun. However, it will take a lot of hard work and persistence to ensure that the outcome of this process (which may extend for a period of several years) provides meaningful protection for biodiversity in the deep sea and on the high seas." The Global Coral Reef Alliance urges over 100 countries, for whom coral reefs are the major source of marine biodiversity, fisheries, tourism, sand supplies, and coastal protection, to take steps to ensure that the forthcoming UN negotiations also make specific recommendations to protect all shallow ecosystems in the high seas which may be extremely important sources of genetic diversity for the living resources within their EEZs. The Global Coral Reef Alliance, Sun and Sea, and the Lighthouse Foundation have recently issued a report on the Saya de Malha Banks calling for special international protection for them, as the largest seagrass and coral reef ecosystem in International Waters in the Indian Ocean, and perhaps in the world. We have urged that this be done under the leadership of the Governments of Seychelles, Mauritius, and the international scientific community, and that a program for its conservation and management be funded by the GEF. Below is a copy of the Summary and the Conservation Conclusions sections of the report together with a link to the full report. We wish to extend this call to protection of ALL shallow water ecosystems in International Waters as well. These are rare and tiny oases in the desert that are highly vulnerable and require special international protection by the world community as part of the common heritage of mankind under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. SUMMARY: SAYA DE MALHA EXPEDITION REPORT The Saya de Malha Banks are one of the least-known shallow marine ecosystems in the world. As they are avoided as a potential hazard to navigation, little mapping or scientific research had been carried out there prior to this expedition. They are dominated by seagrasses and coral reefs, are a major whale breeding ground, and are a key stepping stone in the migration of shallow water species across the Indian Ocean. The bottom was found to be composed of a generally flat sloping limestone rock covered by seagrass interspersed with small coral reefs. Drilling of the surface showed that the bottom is made up of layered growths of red calcareous algae, and studies are underway to determine the age and growth rate of this material. The fauna and flora were filmed, and a visual biodiversity encyclopedia will be prepared showing all the species found and their diversity. Coral reefs had suffered extensive mortality between 1997 and 2002, almost certainly due to severe high temperatures in 1998, but there were many new young corals that had settled since then. Because of the rich supply of nutrients and plankton delivered to the banks from adjacent deep waters, the Banks are an oasis of high productivity. Since a large part of the seagrass organic production is swept by the currents into deep waters, where some of it is buried in deep sediments, the banks serve as a significant sink of atmospheric carbon dioxide and a source of oxygen. Future work is needed to map the ecosystems on the bank and characterize their importance in maintaining biodiversity and global geochemical balances. Because Saya de Malha is the largest shallow tropical marine ecosystem in the world that lies mainly in International Waters outside of all territorial jurisdiction, they are in strong need of protection, which will require establishment of an unprecedented International Biosphere Reserve, the first of its kind. CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS Saya de Malha is in many ways a marginal habitat for corals, being much better for seagrass, but it nevertheless is a crucial habitat for coral species survival because as global warming accelerates coral survival will be best in marginal habitats, especially those affected by enough upwelling to keep the water slightly cooler than surrounding areas. On the other hand, because of elevated nutrients, corals are prone to algae overgrowth, but Saya at present appears to have a balance where nutrients are not high enough to cause excessive growth of weedy algae that inhibit coral settlement, but are still sufficient to promote the growth of the encrusting red algae that promote coral settlement. This, and its remoteness from direct sources of anthropogenic stress, make it a crucial reservoir to maintain biodiversity in surrounding inhabited islands and shores of the Western Indian Ocean, as seen by the high rates of new coral settlement since bleaching. However the reefs are very vulnerable to damage from trawling and bottom fishing, and need to be protected from destructive fishing methods if they are to remain a natural coral ark. Shallow water ecosystems lying in international waters pose a special case for conservation. Freedom of the high seas means that they can be utilized at will by all who can reach them without any national supervision or management. A special case is recognized in the case of straddling fish stocks that are divided between national and international waters, requiring a special series of UN sponsored negotiations between interested parties. Note that these parties are humans with an interest in specific economic resources, which poorly serves sustainable management and resource conservation because the interests of the species subjected to human activities is not taken into account. Nevertheless ecosystems like Saya de Malha are of extreme importance to global conservation, because they may provide a crucial refuge that allows species to survive without excessive harvesting, and because they serve as critical stepping stones allowing species to spread into new habitats and maintain genetic flow between remote and otherwise isolated populations. A shallow water ecosystem as remote as Saya de Malha is subjected to far less direct human stress than those more accessible. It seems to be in the long term interest of humanity to save these very few refuges, which may prove critical in the future if more accessible ecosystems collapse from the pressures they are under, especially from population-dependent stresses such as overfishing, global warming, sea level rise, escalating pollution, and emerging diseases. An area like Saya could well prove to be Noah's Ark for many species, and should be declared a Special International Protected Area or Biosphere Reserve. It should be managed by an international body, in cooperation with the Seychelles and Mauritius, which have a clear interest in maintaining their straddling stocks on Saya. The Saya Banks are known to be a significant breeding ground for many species of dolphins and whales, including Blue Whales and Sperm Whales. They require strict protection for this reason alone. We therefore recommend that the entire Saya de Malha Banks be declared an International Biosphere Reserve by the Governments of Seychelles and Mauritius, the United Nations Environment Program, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea, and other interested international bodies, and that funding be provided for their sound and sustainable management by the Global Environment Facility of the World Bank. For the full illustrated report on Saya de Malha. For more information on sustainable development and protection of ocean resources in the face of global ocean change. For more information on coral reef protection and restoration, please go to: www.globalcoral.org For more information on marine protection by the Lighthouse Foundation, please go to: For more information on the deep sea biodiversity initiative please contact Matthew Gianni at: |
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